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Abstract
The use of manipulatives, such as fingers, blocks, or coins, has been shown to positively impact students learning of mathematics. Recent research has pointed out that the efficacy of learning with manipulatives is affected by multiple variables, including the amount of guidance teachers provide during learning. Guidance and structure have both been linked to higher achievement but the two terms are not clearly defined and, thus, are used interchangeably. This dissertation aimed to solve two issues. First, to clearly define guidance and distinguish it from structure. Second, an experimental intervention examined the optimal level of guidance during kindergarten mathematics instruction with manipulatives. Results showed there was no difference in learning across the conditions, even after controlling for pretest performance. These results provide valuable information to teachers on the areas of mathematics that do not require high guidance. Practical implications and areas of future research are discussed.