SINGING THE HOLY SPIRIT: HYMN-SINGING, LANGUAGE, AND COMMUNITY AMONG LOKONO ARAWAKS, CHEROKEES, AND JAMAICAN SLAVES, 1740-1840byJames Anthony Owen(Under the Direction of Claudio Saunt)ABSTRACTHymn-singing played a central role in the early formation of indigenous and non-European conceptions of Christianity. The translation of Christian hymns into indigenous American languages, including creole languages that developed as cross-cultural means of communication in the New World, often cemented the association of Christian ideas such as sin, faith, Satan, and the Holy Spirit with local spirituals ideas and practices. In the process, Christianity was indigenized. Hymn-singing created a cultural space where non-European Christian identity was negotiated. Hymn translations in indigenous languages became a tool for asserting cultural values and a cultural identity that often undermined to goals of European colonialism. Indigenous and enslaved peoples forged tools for cultural survival from European hymn traditions.